Exchange Systems, Trade Networks, and Archaeology

An exchange system or trade network can be defined as any manner in which consumers connect with producers. Regional exchange studies in archaeology describe the networks that people used to gain, barter for, purchase, or otherwise obtain raw material, goods, services and ideas from the producers or sources, and to move those goods across the landscape. The purpose of exchange systems can be to fulfill both basic and luxury needs. Archaeologists identify networks of exchange by using a variety of analytical techniques on material culture, and by identifying raw material quarries and manufacturing techniques for specific types of artifacts. Exchange systems have been a focus of archaeological research since the mid-19th century  when chemical analyses were first used to identify the distribution of metal artifacts from central Europe. One pioneer study is that of archaeologist Anna Shepard who during the 1930s and 40s used the presence of mineral inclusions in pottery sherds to provide evidence for a widespread trade and exchange network throughout the southwestern United States. Economic Anthropology The underpinnings of the exchange systems research were strongly influenced by Karl Polyani in the 1940s and 50s. Polyani, an economic anthropologist, described three types of trading exchange: reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange. Reciprocity and redistribution, said Polyani, are methods that are embedded in long-range relationships that imply trust and confidence: markets, on the other hand, are self-regulating and disembedded from trust relationships between producers and consumers. Reciprocity is a behavioral system of trade, which is based on the more or less equal sharing of goods and services. Reciprocity could be defined simply as you scratch my back, Ill scratch yours: you do something for me, Ill reciprocate by doing something for you. Ill watch your cows, youll provide my family with milk.Redistribution involves a collection point from which goods are apportioned out. In a typical redistribution system, a village chief collects a percentage of the produce in a village, and provides it to members of the group based on need, gifts, feasting: any one of a number of etiquette rules that have been established in a given society.Market exchange involves an organized institution, in which goods producers congregate at specified locations at specified times. Either barter or money exchange is involved ​in order to allow consumers to obtain required goods and services from purveyors. Polyani himself argued that markets may or may not be integrated within c ommunity networks. Identifying Exchange Networks Anthropologists can go into a community and determine the existing exchange networks by talking to the local residents and observing the processes: but archaeologists must work from what David Clarke once called indirect traces in bad samples. Pioneers in the archaeological study of exchange systems include Colin Renfrew, who argued that it was important to study trade because the institution of a trade network is a causal factor for cultural change. Archaeological evidence for the movement of goods across the landscape has been identified by a series of technological innovations, building from Anna Shepards research. In general, sourcing artifacts—identifying where a particular raw material came from—involves a series of laboratory tests on artifacts which are then compared to known similar materials. Chemical analysis techniques used to identify raw material sources include Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and various spectrographic methods, among a wide and growing number of laboratory techniques. In addition to identifying the source or quarry where raw materials were obtained, chemical analysis can also identify similarities in pottery types or other sorts of finished goods, thus determining whether the finished goods were created locally or brought in from a distant location. Using a variety of methods, archaeologists can identify whether a pot that looks as if it were made in a different town is truly an import, or rather a locally made copy. Markets and Distribution Systems Market locations, both prehistorically and historically, are often located in public plazas or town squares, open spaces shared by a community and common to nearly every society on the planet. Such markets often rotate: market day in a given community may be every Tuesday and in a neighboring community every Wednesday. Archaeological evidence of such use of communal plazas is difficult to ascertain  because typically plazas are cleaned and used for a wide variety of purposes. Itinerant traders such as the pochteca of Mesoamerica have been identified archaeologically through iconography on written documents and monuments such as stele  as well as by the types of artifacts left in burials (grave goods). Caravan routes have been identified in numerous places archaeologically, most famously as part of the Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe. Archaeological evidence seems to suggest that trade networks were much of the driving force behind the construction of roads, whether wheeled vehicles were available or not. Diffusion of Ideas Exchange systems are also the way ideas and innovations are communicated across the landscape. But thats a whole other article. Sources Colburn CS. 2008. Exotica and the  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Early Minoan Elite: Eastern Imports in Prepalatial Crete. American Journal of Archaeology 112(2):203-224.Gemici K. 2008. Karl Polanyi and the antinomies of embeddedness. Socio-Economic Review 6(1):5-33.Renfrew C. 1977. Alternative models for exchange and spatial distribution. In. In: Earle TK, and Ericson JE, editors. Exchange Systems In Prehistory. New York: Academic Press. p 71-90.Shortland A, Rogers N, and Eremin K. 2007. Trace element discriminants between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Late Bronze Age glasses. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(5):781-789.

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TransitionTheoryAfafIbrahimMelesis Free Essays

My goal was to help hem stay as independent as possible so they could remain in their own living environment as well as reduce hospitalizing and improve outcomes for the company worked for. Started to incorporate some of the concepts used in the Transition Theory but more specifically the work of Mary Anally and Janet Van Cleave who developed the Transitional Care Model from the University of Pennsylvania. By implementing the role of a transitional care nurse, I was able to support my patient’s with tools and information they needed to help them stay healthy enough to remain in their own home. We will write a custom essay sample on TransitionTheoryAfafIbrahimMelesis or any similar topic only for you Order Now FAA Abraham Miles is a reorient nurse sociologist, educator, theorist, and researcher that began her nursing career in her native Egypt in the sass’s (Alligator, 2014). FAA Miles first developed Transition Theory while working on her doctorate in the mid sass’s and further developed it over the next three decades while working as a nurse educator and researcher. She conceptualized the idea of Transition Theory as it applies to nursing practice while working on her idea of role supplementation. Her theory is described as having four types of transition- developmental, situational, health/illness, and organizational Mà ªlà ©es, Sawyer, Im, Hollering-Messiahs, Schumacher, 2000, p. 17). FAA Miles Transitions Theory is used as its theoretical basis for the University of Pennsylvania center call Transitions and Health, directed by Mary Anally (Alligator, 2014). Was first introduced to transitional care at a nursing conference attended to seek ways to improve outcomes for our chronically ill older patients and to keep them at home instead of being admitted in the hospital or nursing home. Often times a patient who is chronically ill is admitted to the hospital over multiple episodes of care for an exacerbation of an illness along with other commodities. Once the patient is stable, they are discharged to home with a plan of care that does not reflect their needs, goals, learning style, or literacy level (Anally Van Cleave, 2010, p. 459). Usually nobody is involved in developing the discharge plan from his family or in the teaching of new medications prescribed. There may even be possible dietary changes that need to be made by the patient. I am sure the hospital does an exceptional job managing their acute medical episode but they do not have time to address the â€Å"root cause† of their multiple, recent hospitalizing (Anally Van Cleave, 2010, p. 459). Most patient’s do not understand what was discussed with them while inpatient. They just want to go home and will say they understand just to be able to do just that. They may not have the means to get to the pharmacy to get their new medications or they may not be able to afford the new medication. There are so many variables that can occur and that is why a transitional nurse may be beneficial. According to Anally Van Cleave, the Transitional Care Model (ETC) provides comprehensive discharge planning and home follow-up care for chronically ill, high risk older adults admitted to the hospital for common deiced conditions. A transitional care nurse, who is usually master-prepared, follows patients from the hospital to their homes, providing evidence-based services aimed to meet the patient and family goals, improve health outcomes, and stop usual patterns of going to the emergency room for non- emergent needs (Anally Van Cleave, 201 0, p. 60). The transitional care nurse focuses on increasing the patient and family ability to manage the frequent transitions in health that characterize chronic illness trajectory (Anally Van Cleave, 2010). In relation of person, transition theory takes into inconsideration that all people are unique and will interpret their transition in different ways. The nurse must be able to assess how the patient perceives their change and develop thera peutics geared toward their perception, assessing for feedback along the way (Chick Miles, 1986). This can be achieved by using the Transitional Care Model as a guideline. The home care agency worked for decided that I would follow our patients with a diagnosis of congestive heart failure and/or chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder with commodities and Medicare was their primary insurance. My role as the ruinations care nurse was to be the primary coordinator of care to assure that there was continuity of care throughout the next thirty days (episode of care) and readmission would be avoided. When a patient of ours was admitted to the hospital, I would visit the patient to do an in-hospital assessment and speak to the discharge planner to let them know what my role was once the patient was discharged. Once the patient was home, I would make home visits every week for the first two weeks and then follow- up phone calls the third and fourth week. Also was available by phone if they needed me anytime in between. My first home visit consisted of helping them fill out a personal health record which included current medications, medical conditions, emergency contacts and so forth. This is when I would discover if they really understood what medications they were supposed to be taking and if they knew the reason why they were taking it for. Most patients had no clue why they were taking medicine for what medical condition or they were not taking the medication as prescribed by their physician because they did not think it was that important or they could not afford it. Sometimes the patient was taking the same medication but the deicing was labeled differently from different pharmacies. Ad the time to explain what each medication was and what it was used for. Was also able to resolve any medication discrepancy from the discharge instructions for the patient. We would call the physician’s office together so it gave them a sense of well-being and gave them control of their own health which is a positive outcome according to Melanie’s transition theory. The second home visit usually consisted of education regarding their diagnosis and which â€Å"re d flags† to be aware of pertaining to their illnesses. Socioeconomic status, education bevel, and cultural beliefs all affect potential health related outcomes (Mà ªlà ©es et 2000). It is important as a nurse to be mindful of how to present information in a way that the patient will understand and be willing to make the changes needed to remain a healthful person. Emphasis on early identification of â€Å"red flags† and how the patient and/or family responds to the symptoms is a way to achieve positive outcomes and avoid readmission (Anally Van Cleave, 201 0, p. 461). Contact is made via a telephone call instead of a home visit for the third and fourth consultation. This is the time hat would answer any remaining medication questions, discuss the outcomes of their recent follow-up appointment with either their primary care physician or specialist, help them make an appointment with their physicians if they have not already done so, and reinforce when or if the patient would need to seek medical treatment. Often times, the patient and or family felt comfortable with their health goals because they were a part of making them which made them feel more accountable. Even though would not be following up with them on a regular basis they knew they could contact me and I would help them in any way I could. While in my role as the transitional care nurse, felt I made a difference in the company by improving outcomes and patient satisfaction. It was very rewarding to be a part of the patients health experience but in a different way than I was before. I witnessed a transition or change in the patients attitude towards their health because they were made to be a part of the process not just a person with an illness who did not know anything. Unfortunately, due to zero reimbursement from insurance companies, the transitional care nurse position was eliminated. The Transitional Care Model is a good concept but more research deeds to be done so insurance companies can see the value in such a program. Ms. Melanie’s Transition Theory has been applied to many different nursing research projects that apply to distinct populations undergoing change (Alligator, 2014). Through the nursing research that is being performed at the university of Pennsylvania where Ms. How to cite TransitionTheoryAfafIbrahimMelesis, Papers

Rogerian Argument Final Essay Example For Students

Rogerian Argument Final Essay For some time now the question of whether or not handguns should be legal to all citizens has haunted our society. Is it morally right for anyone to carry a gun and shoot it when they feel it to be necessary? Doesnt the second amendment still hold true today? These question are ones that have been thrown back and forth between pro and anti gun users for some time and will probably continue for some time longer. There are people who say handguns in the home can only cause unneeded accidents. There have been several incidents where a child in the household has mistaken a gun for a toy and has injured themself or others. Also there have been occasions where careless gun owners have left their guns loaded and someone was shoot accidentally. Studies show that four people die each day because of accidental gun fire. Anti-gun users have pointed out the fact that states who have relaxed their gun laws have had an increase in homicides. Also the fact that more people have died from criminal use of guns than people in the civil war. Some feel it is extremely easy for just about anyone to get access to a handgun. The laws in some states dont require a waiting period , several forms of identification, or even a back round check. Anti-gun users feel that if handguns are illegal it may not be impossible for criminals to obtain them but it would be much more difficult. If that were true some believe there will be a drastic decrease in gang violence and armed robbery. The ultimate argument pro-gun users have is the second amendment which states an individuals right to keep and bear arms. They feel it is there right to be able to own a gun to protect themselves from those who want to cause harm. If guns were outlawed and criminals were still finding a way to access a gun the common citizen would be helpless against them. Pro-gunners are aware of the many accidental deaths caused by the misuse of guns, however the fact remains that a numerous amount of people are killed each day by careless drivers. They are aware that accidental deaths can be caused by a variety of different things, so should they give up there right to own a gun to protect them if the need arises. Individuals that support the second amendment stand by the fact that it is better to have a gun and not need it then to need a gun and not have it. The question of whether or not guns should be legal is quite a difficult one to make. There may be a way to find an agreeable middle point. Perhaps the laws pertaining to acquiring a handgun could be changed to be more strict on who they give permits to carry a gun to. Getting a permit could require a full background check and several forms of identification. A waiting period of one to three weeks can be required and inforced. This could cut down on the fact that in some states anyone can walk into a gun shop and give a fake name and walk out with a gun that day. Another way to compromise would be to completely limit guns to shooting ranges and hunting grounds. That way those who feel the compulsion to use guns can be restrained to a location where less accidents can occur. It is possible to lessen the number of accidental deaths caused by guns without banning them completely. .